🔘 LEPIDUS “The Scipios and the other Roman generals of the olden time never dared or carried out a braver act than did Caesar (Octavian) at this juncture. For although he was unarmed and dressed in his travelling cloak, carrying nothing except his name, he entered the camp of Lepidus, and, avoiding the weapons which were hurled at him by the orders of that scoundrel, though his cloak was pierced by a lance, he had the courage to carry off the eagle of a legion. Then could one know the difference between the two commanders. Though armed, the soldiers followed Caesar who was unarmed, while Lepidus, in the tenth year after arriving at a position of power which his life had done nothing to deserve, now deserted both by his soldiers and by fortune, wrapping himself in a dark cloak and lurking in the rear of the crowd that thronged to Caesar, thus threw himself at Caesar's feet. He was granted his life and the control of his own property, but was shorn of the high position which he had shown himself unable to maintain.” Velleius Paterculus, Roman History

🔵 MOVING CAMP “The following is their manner of moving camp. At the first bugle the men all strike their tents and collect their baggage; but no soldier may strike his tent, or set it up either, till the same is done to that of the Tribuni and the Consul. At the second bugle they load the beasts of burden with their baggage: at the third the first maniples must advance and set the whole camp in motion. Generally speaking, the men appointed to make this start are the extraordinarii: next comes the right wing of the socii; and behind them their beasts of burden. These are followed by the first legion with its own baggage immediately on its rear; then comes the second legion, followed by its own beasts of burden, and the baggage of those socii who have to bring up the rear of the march, that is to say, the left wing of the socii. The cavalry sometimes ride on the rear of their respective divisions, sometimes on either side of the beasts of burden, to keep them together and secure them. If an attack is expected on the rear, the extraordinarii themselves occupy the rear instead of the van. Of the two legions and wings each takes the lead in the march on alternate days, that by this interchange of position all may have an equal share in the advantage of being first at the water and forage. The order of march, however, is different at times of unusual danger, if they have open ground enough. For in that case they advance in three parallel columns, consisting of the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii: the beasts of burden belonging to the maniples in the van are placed in front of all, those belonging to the second behind the leading maniples, and those belonging to the third behind the second maniples, thus having the baggage and the maniples in alternate lines. With this order of march, on an alarm being given, the columns face to the right or left according to the quarter on which the enemy appears, and get clear of the baggage. So that in a short space of time, and by one movement, the whole of the hoplites are in line of battle—except that sometimes it is necessary to half-wheel the Hastati also—and the baggage and the rest of the army are in their proper place for safety, namely, in the rear of the line of combatants.” Polybius, histories

🟣 SPQR SPQR, short for the Latin phrase Senātus Populusque Rōmānus, translates to "The Senate and People of Rome." It was the official emblem of the Roman Republic, and later, the Roman Empire. Think of it as the Roman equivalent of a national motto or slogan. It represented the authority and power of the Roman state, signifying the shared power between the Senate (the more elite, advisory body) and the Populus (the Roman people as a whole). It was a powerful symbol of Roman unity and sovereignty. You would have seen SPQR everywhere in ancient Rome. It was inscribed on public buildings, monuments, aqueducts, and even on coins. It was a constant reminder of the Roman state and its reach. The use of SPQR continued through the Roman Empire, although the balance of power shifted more towards the Emperor.

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"The belly has no ears, nor is it to be filled with fair words." Plutarch, parallel lives

"I don't need a friend who changes when I change and who nods when I nod; my shadow does that much better." Plutarch, parallel lives

⚪️ SINGLE COMBAT “In their journeyings and when they go into battle the Gauls use chariots drawn by two horses, which carry the charioteer and the warrior; and when they encounter cavalry in the fighting they first hurl their javelins at the enemy and then step down from their chariots and join battle with their swords. Certain of them despise death to such a degree that they enter the perils of battle without protective armour and with no more than a girdle about their loins. They bring along to war also their free men to serve them, choosing them out from among the poor, and these attendants they use in battle as charioteers and as shield-bearers. It is also their custom, when they are formed for battle, to step out in front of the line and to challenge the most valiant men from among their opponents to single combat, brandishing their weapons in front of them to terrify their adversaries. And when any man accepts the challenge to battle, they then break forth into a song in praise of the valiant deeds of their ancestors and in boast of their own high achievements, reviling all the while and belittling their opponent, and trying, in a word, by such talk to strip him of his bold spirit before the combat.” Diodorus Siculus

🟢 MEASURING TRAVEL DISTANCE BY CHARIOT “Let us now consider an invention by no means useless, and delivered to us by the antients as of ingenuity, by means of which, when on a journey by land or sea, one may ascertain the distance travelled. It is as follows. The wheels of the chariot must be four feet diameter; so that, marking a certain point thereon, whence it begins its revolution on the ground, when it has completed that revolution, it will have gone on the road over a space equal to twelve feet and a half. This being adjusted on the inner side of the nave of the wheel, let a drum-wheel be securely fixed, having one small tooth projecting beyond the face of its circumference; and in the body of the chariot let a small box be fastened, with a drum-wheel placed to revolve perpendicularly, and fastened to an axle. The latter wheel is to be equally divided, on its edge, into four hundred teeth, corresponding with the teeth of the lower drum-wheel: besides the above the upper drum-wheel has on its side one tooth projecting out before the others. Above, in another enclosure, is a third horizontal wheel toothed similarly, and so that the teeth correspond with that tooth which is fixed to the side of the second wheel. In the third wheel just described are as many holes as are equal to the number of miles in an usual day's journey. It does not, however, signify, if they be more or less. In all the holes let small balls be placed, and in the box or lining let a hole be made, having a channel, through which each ball may fall into the box of the chariot, and the brazen vessel placed under it. Thus, as the wheel proceeds, it acts on the first drum-wheel, the tooth of which, in every revolution, striking the tooth of the upper wheel, causes it to move on; so that when the lower wheel as revolved four hundred times, the upper wheel has revolved only once, and its tooth, which is on the side, will have acted on only one tooth of the horizontal wheel. Now as in four hundred revolutions of the lower wheel, the upper wheel will only have turned round once, the length of the journey will be •five thousand feet, or one thousand paces. Thus, by the dropping of the balls, and of the noise they make, we know every mile passed over; and each day one may ascertain, by the number of balls collected in the bottom, the number of miles in the day's journey.” Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, de Architectura

⚫️ TRANSLATIO OR METAPHOR “Let us begin, then, with the commonest and by far the most beautiful of tropes, namely, metaphor, the Greek term for our translatio. It is not merely so natural a turn of speech that it is often employed unconsciously or by uneducated persons, but it is in itself so attractive and elegant that however distinguished the language in which it is embedded it shines forth with a light that is all its own. For if it be correctly and appropriately applied, it is quite impossible for its effect to be commonplace, mean or unpleasing. It adds to the copiousness of language by the interchange of words and by borrowing, and finally succeeds in accomplishing the supremely difficult task of providing a name for everything. A noun or a verb is transferred from the place to which it properly belongs to another where there is either no literalterm or the transferred is better than the literal. We do this either because it is necessary or to make our meaning clearer or, as I have already said, to produce a decorative effect. When it secures none of these results, our metaphor will be out of place.” Quintilian, The Orator’s Education

🟡 ANTONY DIVORCES OCTAVIA Octavia, the sister of Roman Emperor Augustus, was married to Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) in a political alliance to solidify peace after Julius Caesar's assassination. While Antony initially seemed to value Octavia, his growing infatuation with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, led to the demise of their marriage. Antony abandoned his Roman responsibilities and his family to pursue a life with Cleopatra, effectively dissolving their union. Octavia remained loyal to her brother and played a crucial role in maintaining peace between the two factions for a time. However, the breakdown of their marriage ultimately contributed to the conflict between Octavian and Antony that culminated in the Battle of Actium (31 BC).

🟤 COMMAGENE The Kingdom of Commagene, situated in present-day southeastern Turkey, emerged from a Seleucid satrapy to become an independent entity. Its rulers are notable for their attempts to merge Hellenistic and Persian cultures. Ptolemaeus of Commagene initiated the kingdom's independence around 163 BC. Antiochus I Theos is perhaps the most celebrated, having commissioned the elaborate monuments of Nemrut Dağ (picture). The kingdom's strategic position between empires like Rome and Parthia shaped its political trajectory. Antiochus IV, the final independent king, faced increasing Roman pressure, culminating in Commagene's annexation by the Roman Empire in 72 AD. Kings list: -Ptolemaeus of Commagene 163-130 BC. -Sames Il Theosebes Dikaios 130-109 BC. * -Mithridates | Callinicus 109-70 BC. ~ -Antiochus I of Commagene 70-38 BC. -Mithridates Il of Commagene 38-20 BC. -Mithridates III of Commagene 20-12 ВС. -Antiochus IIl of Commagene 12 BC - 17 AD. -The gap between 17 AD and 37 AD is because of the annexation of Commagene by Tiberius in 17 AD -Antiochus IV of Commagene 38-72 AD.

🔶 THE KINGDOM OF PONTUS ON HOW ROME VIEWS KINGS. "That it was not the offences of kings, but their power and majesty, for which they attacked them and that they had not acted thus against himself alone, but against all other princes at all times. That they had treated his grandfather Pharnaces in the same manner, who, by the arbitration of his relatives, was made successor to Eumenes king of Pergamum; that Eumenes himself, again, in whose fleet they had for the first time been transported into Asia, and by whose army ,rather than their own, they had subdued both Antiochus the Great and the Gauls in Asia, and soon after king Perseus in Macedonia, had been treated by them as an enemy, and had been forbidden to come into Italy, though they made war, which they thought it would be disgraceful to make upon himself, upon his son Aristonicus. No king's services were thought more important by them than those of Masinissa, king of Numidia; to him it was ascribed that Hannibal was conquered; to him, that Syphax was made prisoner; to him, that Carthage was destroyed; he was ranked with the two Africani, as a third saviour of the city; yet a war had lately been carried on with his grandson in Africa, so implacably, that they would not save the vanquished prince, for the sake of his grandfather's memory, from being cast into gaol, and led in triumph as a public spectacle. That they had made it a law to themselves to hate all kings, because they themselves had had such kings at whose names they might well blush, being either shepherds of the Aborigines, or soothsayers of the Sabines; or exiles from the Corinthians, or servants and slaves of the Etruscans, or, what was the most honourable name amongst them, the proud; and as their founders, according to their report, were suckled by the teats of a wolf, so the whole race had the disposition of wolves, being insatiable of blood and tyranny, and eager and hungry after riches.” Mithradates 6, king of Pontus speech. Justinus

🔺 HARD WORK BEATS TALENT “As for his literary pursuits, he (Crassus) cultivated chiefly the art of speaking which was of general service, and after making himself one of the most power­ful speakers at Rome, his care and application enabled him to surpass those who were most gifted by nature. For there was no case, they say, however trifling and even contemptible it might be, which he undertook without preparation, but often, when Pompey and Caesar and Cicero were unwilling to plead, he would perform all the duties of an advocate. And on this account he became more popular than they, being esteemed a careful man, and one who was ready with his help. He pleased people also by the kindly and unaffected manner with which he clasped their hands and addressed them. For he never met a Roman so obscure and lowly that he did not return his greeting and call him by name.” Plutarch

🔵 POLYBIUS ON CAMP CONSTRUCTION “Their method of laying out a camp is as follows. The place for the camp having been selected, the spot in it best calculated to give a view of the whole, and most convenient for issuing orders, is appropriated for the general's tent (Praetorium). Having placed a standard on the spot on which they intend to put the Praetorium, they measure off a square round this standard; in such a way that each of its sides is a hundred feet from the standard, and the area of the square is four plethra. Along one side of this square—whichever aspect appears most convenient for watering and foraging—the legions are stationed as follows. I have said that there were six Tribuni in each legion, and that each Consul had two legions,—it follows that there are twelve Tribuni in a Consular army. Well, they pitch the tents of these Tribuni all in one straight line, parallel to the side of the square selected, at a distance of fifty feet from it (there is a place too selected for the horses, beasts of burden, and other baggage of the Tribuni); these tents face the outer side of the camp and away from the square described above,—a direction which will henceforth be called "the front" by me. The tents of the Tribuni stand at equal distances from each other, so that they extend along the whole breadth of the space occupied by the legions.” Polybius, histories

🟣 THE SEVEN KINGS OF ROME The first King of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in approximately 753 BC. He reigned until 716 BC and is known for establishing many of Rome's early institutions. Numa Pompilius succeeded Romulus and reigned from 715 to 673 BC. He is credited with establishing many of Rome's religious traditions and legal systems. Tullus Hostilius was the third king, reigning from 672 to 641 BC. He was a more militaristic king and is said to have destroyed the rival city of Alba Longa. Ancus Marcius followed Hostilius, reigning from 640 to 616 BC. He is known for expanding Rome's territory and building the city's first bridge across the Tiber River. Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king, reigned from 616 to 578 BC. He was the first Etruscan king of Rome and is credited with introducing many Etruscan customs and architectural innovations to the city. Servius Tullius, the sixth king, reigned from 578 to 535 BC. He is known for reforming the Roman army and expanding the city's walls. The final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus, who reigned from 534 to 509 BC. He was a tyrannical ruler who was eventually overthrown, leading to the establishment of the Roman Republic.

Are you tough enough to hold formation while a 3000kg enemy war elephant tramples half your company to death?

⚪️ REÏNCARNATION “They (the Gauls) invite strangers to their feasts, and do not inquire until after the meal who they are and of what things they stand in need. And it is their custom, even during the course of the meal, to seize upon any trivial matter as an occasion for keen disputation and then to challenge one another to single combat, without any regard for their lives; for the belief of Pythagoras prevails among them, that the souls of men are immortal and that after a prescribed number of years they commence upon a new life, the soul entering into another body. Consequently, we are told, at the funerals of their dead some cast letters upon the pyre which they have written to their deceased kinsmen, as if the dead would be able to read these letters.” Diodorus Siculus

🟢 WATER MILLS “Wheels on rivers are constructed upon the same principles as those just described. Round their circumference are fixed paddles, which, when acted upon by the force of the current, drive the wheel round, receive the water in the buckets, and carry it to the top with the aid of treading; thus by the mere impulse of the stream supplying what is required. Water mills are turned on the same principle, and are in all respects similar, except that at one end of the axis they are provided with a drum-wheel, toothed and framed fast to the said axis; this being placed vertically on the edge turns round with the wheel. Corresponding with the drum-wheel a larger horizontal toothed wheel is placed, working on an axis whose upper head is in the form of a dovetail, and is inserted into the mill-stone. Thus the teeth of the drum-wheel which is made fast to the axis acting on the teeth of the horizontal wheel, produce the revolution of the mill-stones, and in the engine a suspended hopper supplying them with grain, in the same revolution the flour is produced.” Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, de Architectura

“For who could keep his hands off Libya, or Carthage, when that city got within his reach, a city which Agathocles, slipping stealthily out of Syracuse and crossing the sea with a few ships, narrowly missed taking?” Plutarch