🟡 DIGGING TOOLS The Romans employed a range of digging tools crafted from iron or bronze. The sarculum, a versatile hoe-like tool, was used for tasks such as digging, weeding, and cultivating soil. For breaking up hard ground and excavating trenches, the ligo, a heavy-duty tool with a curved blade similar to a mattock, was employed. The dolabra, a type of pickaxe with a curved blade, served the purpose of chopping wood and breaking rocks. For scooping up dirt and other materials, the batillum, a small shovel, was utilized. These tools, along with specialized implements like the falx, a curved sickle used for harvesting crops, were essential for a wide array of activities, from constructing roads and aqueducts to tending fields and gardens.

🟤 THE CANTABRIAN WARS The Cantabrian Wars (29-19 BC) were a brutal series of conflicts between the Roman Empire and the indigenous tribes of northern Spain, primarily the Cantabri and Astures. These fierce and strategically adept tribes, employing guerrilla tactics and fortified mountain strongholds, posed a formidable challenge to Roman legions. Despite initial setbacks, the Romans, under the leadership of Augustus, ultimately prevailed through overwhelming force and a scorched-earth policy. The wars resulted in the complete subjugation of the Cantabrians and Astures, marking the final stage of Rome's conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

🔶 A SECOND CENTURY BANK LOAN “The 4th year of the Emperor Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius, Pharmouthi 27, by a draft of the bank of Sabinus in the Treasuries' quarter. Isidora daughter of Heracleides son of Meledemus, with her guardian her kinsman Apion son of Apion, notifies Tamystha daughter of Origenes son of Origenes, with her guardian her son Ptolemaeus son of Ptolemaeus, that she, Tamystha, has received the loan of the capital sum of three thousand five hundred drachmas of silver, total 3500 dr., for one year from the present month Pachon, at the monthly interest of 1 drachma on each mina, which sum she will repay in the month Pharmouthi of the coming 5th year of Antoninus Caesar the lord with the interest accruing on it to the amount of 420 drachmas, in accordance with a contract of mortgage which Tamystha has made on her rights over a sum of money, and which was drawn up through the record-office.”

🔺 WHAT WAS A PREFECT? a prefect (praefectus in Latin, meaning "one placed in charge") was an appointed official, rather than an elected magistrate. Prefects were delegated authority by a higher-ranking official, such as a magistrate or the emperor, to carry out specific duties or administer certain areas. Their authority was derived from and limited by the official who appointed them. The biggest differences between a proconsul and a prefect in ancient Rome lie in their origin, rank, typical responsibilities, and the scope of their authority. Examples: -Praefectus Urbi: City of Rome's law and order. - Praefectus Annonae: Grain supply for Rome. - Praefectus Praetorio: Commander of the Praetorian Guard (evolved into a powerful administrative role). -Praefectus Vigilum: Rome's fire brigade and night watch. -Praefectus Castrorum: Legion camp administration. - Praefectus Cohortis: Commander of an auxiliary infantry unit. -Praefectus Classis: Commander of a fleet. -Praefectus Civitatium: Administrator of a specific town or area within a province.

🔘 THE IllITERACY OF THE OSTROGOTH “Now King Theoderic was without training in letters, and of such dull comprehension that for ten years of his reign he had been wholly unable to learn the four letters necessary for endorsing his edicts. For that reason he had a golden plate with slits made, containing the four letters "legi"; then, if he wished to endorse anything, he placed the plate over the paper and drew his pen through the slits, so that only this subscription of his was seen.” The Anonymus Valesianus

🔵 PYDNA The Battle of Pydna, fought in 168 BC, was a pivotal clash between the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Macedon during the Third Macedonian War. The Macedonian phalanx, a formidable formation of heavily armed infantry, had long been the dominant military force in the Mediterranean, but its effectiveness was waning against the more adaptable Roman legions. Roman general Lucius Aemilius Paullus, recognizing the limitations of the phalanx, devised a strategy to exploit its weaknesses. He aimed to lure the Macedonians onto unfavorable ground and disrupt their tightly packed formation. King Perseus of Macedon, however, believed the hilly terrain would give him an advantage and deployed his phalanx accordingly. The Romans, initially hindered by the difficult terrain, found a more suitable route for their attack. They launched a fierce assault, utilizing their manipular system – flexible units of legionaries – to penetrate the phalanx. The Roman attack focused on the flanks and rear of the Macedonian formation, causing confusion and exploiting gaps in the tightly packed lines. The Macedonian phalanx, while initially strong, struggled to maneuver effectively on the uneven ground and became increasingly disorganized under the multi-pronged Roman assault. Unable to maintain its cohesion, the phalanx eventually crumbled. King Perseus and his army were routed, marking the end of Macedonian independence and ushering in an era of Roman dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. The Battle of Pydna demonstrated the superiority of the Roman legionary system over the traditional phalanx.

Life is rough man, but that’s probably what it should be 😂. Never stop smiling.

🟣 CLEOPATRA’S MARILYN MONROE EFFECT “For her actual beauty, it is said, was not in itself so remarkable that none could be compared with her, or that no one could see her without being struck by it, but the contact of her presence, if you lived with her, was irresistible; the attraction of her person, joining with the charm of her conversation, and the character that attended all she said or did, was something bewitching. It was a pleasure merely to hear the sound of her voice, with which, like an instrument of many strings, she could pass from one language to another; so that there were few of the barbarian nations that she answered by an interpreter. Antony was so captivated by her, that while Fulvia his wife maintained his quarrels in Rome against Caesar by actual force of arms, and the Parthian troops...were assembled in Mesopotamia, and ready to enter Syria, he could yet suffer himself to be carried away by her to Alexandria, there to keep holiday, like a boy, in play and diversion, squandering and fooling away in enjoyment that most costly, as Antiphon says, of all valuables, time.” Plutarch

Tyger Tyger, burning bright, In the forests of the night; What immortal hand or eye, Could frame thy fearful symmetry? In what distant deeps or skies. Burnt the fire of thine eyes? On what wings dare he aspire? What the hand, dare seize the fire? And what shoulder, & what art, Could twist the sinews of thy heart? And when thy heart began to beat. What dread hand? & what dread feet? What the hammer? what the chain, In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil? what dread grasp. Dare its deadly terrors clasp? When the stars threw down their spears And water'd heaven with their tears: Did he smile his work to see? Did he who made the Lamb make thee? Tyger Tyger burning bright, In the forests of the night: What immortal hand or eye, Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?

⚪️ THE ROMANS GET SLAUGHTERD “The Celts, though they had slain great numbers on the bank of the river, nevertheless did not desist from the zest for glory but showered javelins upon the swimmers; and since many missiles were hurled and men were massed in the river, those who threw did not miss their mark. So it was that some died at once from mortal blows, and others, who were wounded only, were carried off unconscious because of loss of blood and the swift current. When such disaster befell, the greater part of the Romans who escaped occupied the city of Veii, which had lately been razed by them, fortified the place as well as they could, and received the survivors of the rout.” Diodorus Siculus

🟢 POMPEY’S ADMIRATION FOR THE BESIEGED “Now here it was that, upon the many hardships which the Romans underwent, Pompey could not but admire not only at the other instances of the Jews' fortitude, but especially that they did not at all intermit their religious services, even when they were encompassed with darts on all sides; for, as if the city were in full peace, their daily sacrifices and purifications, and every branch of their religious worship, was still performed to God with the utmost exactness. Nor indeed when the temple was actually taken, and they were every day slain about the altar, did they leave off the instances of their Divine worship that were appointed by their law; for it was in the third month of the siege before the Romans could even with great difficulty overthrow one of the towers, and get into the temple. Now he that first of all ventured to get over the wall, was Faustus Cornelius the son of Sylla; and next after him were two centurions, Furius and Fabius; and every one of these was followed by a cohort of his own, who encompassed the Jews on all sides, and slew them, some of them as they were running for shelter to the temple, and others as they, for a while, fought in their own defense. And now did many of the priests, even when they saw their enemies assailing them with swords in their hands, without any disturbance, go on with their Divine worship, and were slain while they were offering their drink-offerings, and burning their incense, as preferring the duties about their worship to God before their own preservation. The greatest part of them were slain by their own countrymen, of the adverse faction, and an innumerable multitude threw themselves down precipices; nay, some there were who were so distracted among the insuperable difficulties they were under, that they set fire to the buildings that were near to the wall, and were burnt together with them. Now of the Jews were slain twelve thousand; but of the Romans very few were slain, but a greater number was wounded.” Flavius Josephus, The Wars Of The Jews

⚫️ SERIOUS BEEF “In the army of Vitellius complete disorder and drunkenness prevailed — things which belong rather to night revels and bacchanalian routs than to the discipline appropriate to an armed camp. So it happened that two soldiers, one from the Fifth legion and the other a Gallic auxiliary, in sport challenged each other to a wrestling match. When the legionary was thrown and the Gaul began to mock him, the crowd of spectators that had gathered took sides and the legionaries suddenly started to kill the auxiliaries, and in fact two cohorts were wiped out. The remedy for this disturbance was a second riot. A cloud of dust and arms were seen in the distance. A general cry was at once raised that the Fourteenth legion was retra­cing its steps and coming to fight; but in fact it was the rear-guard, and when they were recognized the general panic ceased.” Tacitus, Histories

🟡 LATIN KINSPEOPLE “The Latins, although allied to the Romans by treaty, nevertheless made war against them. They accused the Romans of despising them, although they were allied to them, and of the same blood.” Appian, the foreign wars

It was a great day. GN frens 😴

🟤 DIO ON THE CANTABRI "Not many of the Cantabri were taken prisoner, for when they saw they had lost all hope of freedom, they lost all desire to preserve their lives either. Some set fire to their forts and cut their own throats, others willingly remained with their companions and died in the flames, while others took poison in the sight of all. In this way the great majority and the fiercest among the tribesmen were wiped out." Cassius Dio, Roman History (XLIV.5)

🔶 LETTER FROM A NAVAL SOLDIER OF THE ATHENONICA COMPANY Date: second century AD “Apion to Epimachus, his father and lord, very many greetings. Before all else I pray for your health and that you may always be well and prosperous, together with my sister and her daughter and my brother. thank the lord Serapis that when I was in danger at sea he straightway saved me. On arriving at Misenum (Roman naval base in the bay of Napels) I received from Caesar three gold pieces for travelling expenses. And it is well with me. Now I ask you, my lord and father, write me a letter, telling me first of your welfare, secondly of my brother's and sister's, and enabling me thirdly to make obeisance before your handwriting, because you educated me well and I hope thereby to have quick advancement, if the gods so will. Give many salutations to Capiton and my brother and sister and Serenilla and my friends. I have sent you by Euctemon a portrait of myself. My name is Antonius Maximus, my company the Athenonica. I pray for your health. {Postscript}   Serenus son of Agathodaemon salutes you, and . . ., and Turbo son of Gallonius, and . . {Addressed}   To Philadelphia, to Epimachus from Apion his son. {Additional address}   Deliver at the camp of the first cohort of the Apameni to Julianus, vice-secretary, this letter from Apion to be forwarded to his father Epimachus. Antonius Maximus to his sister, Sabina, many greetings. Before all else I pray that you are healthy, for I myself am healthy. Making mention of you before the gods here, I received a little letter from Antoninus our fellow citizen. And when I learned that you were well I rejoiced much. And I do not hesitate to write to you about my welfare and that of my family at every opportunity. Greet Maximus and Kopres, my lord. My spouse Aufidia greets you and so does Maximus my son, whose birthday is the thirtieth of Epeiph, according to Greek reckoning, as well as Elpis and Fortuna. Greet my lord [. . .] I pray that you may be well. {Addressed}   To his sister, Sabina, from her brother Antonius Maximus.”

🔺 WHAT WAS A PROCURATOR? A Roman procurator was a high-ranking official, usually of equestrian rank, appointed by the emperor to manage imperial finances or govern minor provinces. They handled tax collection, imperial estates, and sometimes commanded troops and administered justice. They were directly appointed by the emperor and played a key role in the empire's administration. Figures like Pontius Pilate were procurators (or similar officials).

🔘 SUCCESSION IN EARLY BYZANTIUM “Now at that same time the emperor Anastasius had three grandsons, namely, Pompeius, Probus, and Hypatius. Considering which one of them he should make his successor, he invited them to have luncheon with him one day, and after luncheon to take their midday siesta within the palace, where he had a couch prepared for each of them. Under the pillow on one couch he ordered the symbol of royalty to be put, and decided that whichever of them chose that couch for his nap, in him he ought to recognise the one to whom he should later turn over the rule. One of the grandsons threw himself down on one couch, but the other two, from brotherly affection, took their places together on another, and so it happened that none of them slept on the couch where the emblem of royalty had been placed. When Anastasius saw this, he began to ponder, and learning from it that none of them should rule, he began to pray to God that He would show him a sign, so that while he still lived he might know who should receive the royal power after his death. While he was considering the question with fasting and prayer, one night in a dream he saw a man, who advised him as follows: "The person whose arrival shall first be announced to you tomorrow in your bedroom will be the one to receive your throne after you." Now it chanced that Justinus, who was commander of the watch, on coming to a place whither he had been directed to go by the emperor, was the first to be announced to him by his head-chamberlain. And when the king knew this, he began to thank God for having deigned to reveal to him who his successor should be.” The Anonymus Valesianus