🔶 MAKING FUN OF PRISONERS OF WAR “Aemilius on conquering the Insubres (Cis Alpine Gauls) celebrated a triumph, and in it conveyed the foremost captives clad in armour up to the Capitol, making jests at their expense because he had heard that they had sworn not to remove their breastplates until they had mounted to the Capitol.”

🔺 PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE “But when they were near the Romans and the signal was raised by their commander, first of all they filled the plain with the sound of a deep and terrifying roar. For the Parthians do not incite themselves to battle with horns or trumpets, but they have hollow drums of distended hide, covered with bronze bells, and on these they beat all at once in many quarters, and the instruments give forth a low and dismal tone, a blend of wild beast's roar and harsh thunder peal. They had rightly judged that, of all the senses, hearing is the one most apt to confound the soul, soonest rouses its emotions, and most effectively unseats the judgment.” (The battle of Carrhae, 53 BC). Plutarch

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🔘 WHY DO THEY SUPPOSE JANUS TO HAVE BEEN TWO-FACED AND SO REPRESENT HIM IN PAINTING AND SCULPTURE? “Is it because, as they relate, he was by birth a Greek from Perrhaebia, and, when he had crossed to Italy and had settled among the savages there, he changed both his speech and his habits? Or is it rather because he changed the people of Italy to another manner and form of life by persuading a people which had formerly made use of wild plants and lawless customs to till the soil and to live under organized government?” Plutarch, Roman Questions

🔵 THE HARBOR OF CARTHAGE Carthage possessed two distinct harbors: a large, rectangular commercial harbor for merchant ships and a remarkable circular military harbor known as the Cothon. The Cothon was a masterpiece of engineering, designed specifically for the Carthaginian navy. It was a perfectly circular basin, surrounded by a ring of structures that provided individual docking bays for warships, facilitating efficient maintenance and repair. An artificial island stood at the center of the Cothon. The Cothon enabled the Carthaginians to build and maintain a formidable navy, The commercial harbor facilitated trade with other civilizations, bringing wealth and resources to the city.

🟣 DEFENDING WISELY “And if the country be not easy to invade but have few and narrow approaches, you should prepare these in advance by such a distribution of forces as has just been described, pla­cing soldiers at the approaches to oppose those who are attacking and wish to march upon the city, having stationed in advance other troops who are made aware by signal-fires of the fortunes of the several divisions, in order that these may bring support, if in any way they need one another's help. 17 If, on the other hand, the land is not difficult to invade, but it is possible for large forces to attack at many points, the strategic positions of the country should be seized, so that the approach to the city may be difficult for the enemy.”

⚪️ HIERO PAYS, SYRACUSE SAFE “The Romans, after adding the forces of these cities to their own, advanced upon Syracuse, intending to besiege Hiero. But Hiero, perceiving the discontent of the Syracusans, sent envoys to the consuls to discuss a settlement, and inasmuch as the Romans were eager to have as their foe the Carthaginians alone, they readily consented and concluded a fifteen-year peace; the Romans received one hundred and fifty thousand drachmas; Hiero, on condition of returning the captives of war, was to continue as ruler of the Syracusans and of the cities subject to him, Acrae, Leontini, Megara, Helorum, Neetum, and Tauromenium.” Diodorus Siculus

🟢 THE ANCESTRAL DAYS The Parentalia was a nine-day festival held in ancient Rome during the month of February to honor deceased family members. This period, known as the "dies parentales" or "ancestral days," began on February 13th and concluded on February 21st. The Parentalia was primarily a private affair, with families visiting the tombs of their ancestors to pay their respects. These visits involved a variety of rituals. Food and drink offerings, such as milk, honey, wine, and bread, were left at the gravesites to nourish the spirits of the departed. Prayers and libations were also performed, seeking the continued goodwill and protection of the ancestors. Beyond these private observances, the Parentalia also held a significant social and religious importance. It served to reinforce the strong emphasis on family ties and ancestral veneration within Roman society. Romans believed that maintaining harmonious relationships with their deceased ancestors was crucial for the well-being and prosperity of their families and the community as a whole. By honoring their ancestors, they believed they ensured continued support and protection from these revered spirits. The final day of the Parentalia, February 21st, was marked by the Feralia, a public ceremony honoring all the dead. This public observance further emphasized the collective importance of respecting and remembering one's ancestors within Roman culture.

⚫️ LACK OF PROVISIONS “Nothing distressed our troops so much as the lack of provisions. The legions' baggage train was sent on to Novaesium with the men who were unfit for service to bring provisions from there overland; for the enemy controlled the river.” “On the march they began to murmur openly that they would no longer endure hunger or the plots of their commanders; but those who were being left behind complained that they were being abandoned by the withdrawal of part of the legions. So a double mutiny began, some urging Vocula to return, others refusing to go back to camp.” Tacitus, Histories

🟡 CONSTANTINOPLE BEFORE CONSTANTINE Before becoming the Roman capital, Byzantium was a small, but strategically important Greek city located on the European side of the Bosporus strait. Its prime location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia made it a natural hub for trade and commerce. Founded in the 7th century BC, Byzantium was a prosperous city-state that participated in the trade of the ancient world. Its strong fortifications and its naval power were used to protect its lucrative trade routes. Byzantium also had a rich cultural heritage, being home to a number of temples, theaters, and other public buildings. It was a center of learning and the arts, and its citizens were known for their love of literature and philosophy. Byzantium's small size and limited resources meant that it was always vulnerable to attack from larger powers. It was conquered several times throughout its history, most notably by the Persians in the 6th century BC. In 330 AD the Roman Emperor Constantine I chose it as the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming it Constantinople.

🟤 LETTER FROM CONSTANTINE TO SHAPUR A part: 3.11.10 “You may well see how delighted I am to hear that this company of my fellow servants—I mean Christians (for my whole message is about them)—abundantly adorns even the finest parts of Persia, in accord with my wishes. Now if you do what is proper and allow them to live happily, then may you accrue happiness, for they are your subjects.” 3.11.11 “Then God, the Lord of all, will be gentle, gracious, and kind toward you. Since you are so mighty and distinguished by piety, I commend them to you. I entrust the task of guiding them (I mean the Christians) to the overseers of the pious worship of God among them. Love them as befits your philanthropy. You will do an indescribable favor for yourself and for us through faith.” 3.11.12 “The all-excellent Emperor Constantine cared for those adorned with piety toward Christ so much that he not only looked after his own subjects but also took care for those living under other regimes, if possible. Therefore he enjoyed the care of God from above, and as he held the reins of all the inhabitants of the Roman world, even of the barbarians, his willing officials and subjects joyfully obeyed the bridle of his will.”

🟤 THE THIRD LEGION The Legio III Gallica was founded by Julius Caesar himself in 49 BCE during his civil war against Pompey. Its name, "Third Gallic Legion," suggests its early recruits were drawn from veterans of Caesar's Gallic campaigns. The legion's symbol was a bull, likely chosen to be associated with Venus, the goddess claimed by Caesar as his ancestor. Legio III Gallica fought in Caesar's civil war and later served in various parts of the Roman Empire, including Gaul, Moesia, and Syria.

🔺 THE PARTHIAN GENERAL “Nor was Surena an ordinary man at all, but in wealth, birth, and consideration, he stood next the king, while in valour and ability he was the foremost Parthian of his time, besides having no equal in stature and personal beauty. He used to travel on private business with a baggage train of a thousand camels, and was followed by two hundred waggons for his concubines, while a thousand mail-clad horsemen and a still greater number of light-armed cavalry served as his escort; and had altogether, as horsemen, vassals, and slaves, no fewer than ten thousand men. Moreover, he enjoyed the ancient and hereditary privilege of being first to set the crown upon the head of the Parthian king; and when this very Hyrodes was driven out of Parthia, he restored him to his throne, and captured for him Seleucia the Great, having been the first to mount its walls, and having routed with his own hand his opponents. And though at this time he was not yet thirty years of age” Plutarch

🔘 WHY DO THE LATINS REVERE THE WOODPECKER AND ALL STRICTLY ABSTAIN FROM IT? “Is it because, as they tell the tale, Picus, transformed by his wife's magic drugs, became a woodpecker and in that form gives oracles and prophecies to those who consult him? Or is this wholly incredible and monstrous, and is that other tale more credible which relates that when Romulus and Remus were exposed, not only did a she-wolf suckle them, but also a certain woodpecker came continually to visit them and bring them scraps of food? For generally, even to this day, in foot-hills and thickly wooded places what the woodpecker is found, there also is found the wolf, as Nigidius records. Or is it rather because they regard this bird as sacred to Mars, even as other birds to other gods? For it is a courageous and spirited bird and has a beak so strong that it can overturn oaks by pecking them until it has reached the inmost part of the tree.” Plutarch, Roman Questions

🔵 HANNIBAL PERSUADES THE SENATE “It was then that the story goes that, upon a certain Senator intending to speak against accepting the terms and actually beginning to do so, Hannibal came forward and pulled the man down from the tribune; and when the other senators showed anger at this breach of custom, Hannibal rose again and "owned that he was ignorant of such things; but said that they must pardon him if he acted in any way contrary to their customs, remembering that he had left the country when he was but fourteen, and had only returned when now past forty-five. Therefore he begged them not to consider whether he had committed a breach of custom, but much rather whether he were genuinely feeling for his country's misfortunes; for that was the real reason for his having been guilty of this breach of manners. For it appeared to him to be astonishing, and, indeed, quite unaccountable, that any one calling himself a Carthaginian, and being fully aware of the policy which they had individually and collectively adopted against the Romans, should do otherwise than adore the kindness of Fortune for obtaining such favourable terms, when in their power, as a few days ago no one—considering the extraordinary provocation they had given—would have ventured to mention, if they had been asked what they expected would happen to their country, in case of the Romans proving victorious. Therefore he called upon them now not to debate, but unanimously to accept the terms offered, and with sacrifices to the gods to pray with one accord that the Roman people might confirm the treaty." His advice being regarded as both sensible and timely, they resolved to sign the treaty on the conditions specified; and the senate at once despatched envoys to notify their consent.” Polybius, histories

🟣 PRECAUTIONS WITH REGARD TO ALLIED FORCES “If allied forces [are admitted] into the city they should never be stationed together, but should be separated in the manner already suggested and for the same reasons. In the same way those who are to make use of mercenary troops should always have citizens under arms surpassing these mercenaries in number and power, otherwise both the citizens and the state are at their mercy. [A danger] of this sort [befell] the Chalcedonians while in a state of siege, due to the presence of allied forces sent by [the people of Cyzicus], their allies. When the Chalcedonians were deliberating upon measures affecting their interest, the troops of the garrison said that they would not consent unless it seemed advantageous to the people of Cyzicus as well, so that the garrison within the walls was much more terrible to the Chalcedonians than was the besieging enemy. One must, therefore, never admit into a city an alien force greater than that already available to the citizens, and the state employing mercenaries must always be much superior to them in strength, since it is not safe to be outnumbered by aliens nor to be in the power of mercenaries, as actually happened to the inhabitants of Heracleia Pontica; for, by bringing in more hired troops than they should, they first made away with those of the opposing faction, but later brought destruction to the themselves and the state, being forced into subjection to the man who introduced the mercenaries.” Aeneas tacticus siege defense

⚪️ WINNING VS TRULY WINNING “The Phoenicians and Romans fought a naval battle; afterwards, in consideration of the magnitude of the war that lay before them, they sent envoys to the consul to discuss terms of friendship. There was much discussion, and both sides engaged in acrimonious debate: the Phoenicians said that they marvelled how the Romans could venture to cross over into Sicily, inasmuch as the Carthaginians had control of the seas; for it was obvious to all that if they did not maintain friendly relations, the Romans would not dare even to wash their hands in the sea. The Romans, for their part, advised the Carthaginians not to teach them to meddle with maritime affairs, since the Romans, so they asserted, were pupils who always outstripped their masters. For example, in ancient times, when they were using rectangular shields, the Etruscans, who fought with round shields of bronze and in phalanx formation, impelled them to adopt similar arms and were in consequence defeated. Then again, when other peoples were using shields such as the Romans now use, and were fighting by maniples, they had imitated both and had overcome those who introduced the excellent models. From the Greeks they had learned siegecraft and the use of engines of war for demolishing walls, and had then forced the cities of their teachers to do their bidding. So now, should the Carthaginians compel them to learn naval warfare, they would soon see that the pupils had become superior to their teachers.” Diodorus Siculus

🟢 MILITARY EXERCISE “if any one does but attend to the other parts of their military discipline, he will be forced to confess that their obtaining so large a dominion hath been the acquisition of their valor, and not the bare gift of fortune; for they do not begin to use their weapons first in time of war, nor do they then put their hands first into motion, while they avoided so to do in times of peace; but, as if their weapons did always cling to them, they have never any truce from warlike exercises; nor do they stay till times of war admonish them to use them; for their military exercises differ not at all from the real use of their arms, but every soldier is every day exercised, and that with great diligence, as if it were in time of war, which is the reason why they bear the fatigue of battles so easily; for neither can any disorder remove them from their usual regularity, nor can fear affright them out of it, nor can labor tire them; which firmness of conduct makes them always to overcome those that have not the same firmness; nor would he be mistaken that should call those their exercises unbloody battles, and their battles bloody exercises.” Flavius Josephus, The Wars Of The Jews